2.
   2024
   
 
|  ( 1500-1956 .)|
   3     100
:-     -    ,         
                 
 -
1.    
  ?     '       
2.           
 -
3.        
4.              
 -
5. 
        
6.            
2.
-
7. 1929            
8.              
   2024
   
 
|  ( 1500-1956 .)|
   3     100
:-     -    ,         
                 
 -
1.    
  ?     '       
:󼨐󼨑󼨒
               ,
    ,     ,   
            - , ,   
   ""    ,    " "
   
   
        -   '
     -           
2.
󹲽󹳉󹳊󹳋󹳌󹳍󹳎󹳔󹳕󹳏󹳐󹳑󹳒󹳖󹳓󹳗
 : 14
      17
  
 :     ,   ,      ,
      
 
?
o        
o             
o            
󹴷󹴺󹴸󹴹󹴻󹴼󹴽󹴾󹴿󹵀󹵁󹵂    
   1300               
  ,            
  
 ,          ,    , 
   
     
  - , ,  
  
      : "       
 ?         

 ?    
  ?"
    -             
     ,            
             
󺂟󺂠󺂧󺂡󺂢󺂣󺂤󺂥󺂦󺂨      
1.   :
o            
       
o   ,    '     , 
  ,    '     
o  :          
, 
,     
2.
2.     :
o        ,   
    
o            ( 
  ,     )
o  :     " "    "" 

3.  :
o     ,        
 
o  :            
   -     
4.     :
o 1440  ,          
o ,       ,      
 
o           
o  :    50   , 20    
  !
󷆫󷆪   
          :
1.     󹴮󹴯󹴰󹴱󹴲󹴳
  ,       -  
  ,          
     
, ,    (     )   
  
2.
2.         󷆰
      ,        
   ,       
          ,     ,
      
3.      󹺬󹺭󹺮󹺯󹺰󹺱
       
           
:          
,    
    
      
4.    󽄸󽄷
       '     
      ,         
    
           
5.       󷖳󷖴󷖵󷖶󷖷
,         
     -   ,    
   
          
6.     󺒷󺒸󺒹󺒺󺒻󺓇󺓈󺒼󺒽󺒾󺒿󺓀󺓁󺓉󺓂󺓃󺓄󺓊󺓅󺓆
       
" "      -        
:     , ,    
2.
7.     (  ) 󷃆󺨺󺨹
     -    
     ,        

󹳨󹳤󹳩󹳪󹳫 
    50             10
    
      -  ,   
        
󽄡󽄢󽄣󽄤󽄥󽄦  
  ,     
      
   ,              
            
     
    
    ,       
  -          
2.           
: 󷇴󷇵󷇶󷇷󷇸󷇹  1:    
󼏨󼏩󼏪󼏫󼏬󷸓󼏭󼏮󷸕󼏯󷸖󼏰󼏱󼏲󼏳󼏴
    1769            
               ,   
 ,      ,        
 
              
󼿁󼿂󼿃󼿄󼿈󼿉󼿅󼿊󼿆󼿇  
2.
1789         -   ,  ( XVI) 
 ,       
  -  :
   
   

 ,           
               
   
󷕛󷕜󷕝󷕡󷕞󷕟󷕠
   1793           
           
     1796  ,         
  , :
    
  '  
      
     " "    
󺃺󺃻󺃼󺃽󺃾󺃿   
1799 ,   (    )       
           
      1799     (   )
       -      
1804 ,       !  -       -
  !
󷨕󷨓󷨔 

    
:
   -      
2.
   (   )        
        
  ,   ,     
󹳦󹳤󹳧 
         - -    
󺃫󺃬󺃭󺃮󺃯󺃰󺃱    
               
   ,           
  
     ,        
:
      
   
           (   
 )
󽅂  
              
  
 :   
         ,   
        ,     ,   ()  
  
     ,           

󽅀
  
  600,000            -   
     ,      

  ,   :
 

2.
    
    
600,000    100,000   ! 󺆾󺆽󺆿󺆅
    
󺪸󺪹       
1814 ,     - , , ,  -    
  
            '   

󷃆󹸃󹸄 
           1815    
       100  ,    '  
  ,              

        -        
  1821      
󹳴󹳵󹳶󹳷    

 
   

    
     
      
    

  ,  
,  
      
      

   , 
, '  
        
       

 , , 
,   
       
  

2.
 -
3.        
:󷆫󷆪
      :          
      -  
 ,      
     19
       
  ,      
  
      
    ,   - , ,       
   -,          -  , 
,    ,            
   
        

󼨻󼨼 
             -    
:
   ()
    ( )
  (  )
   (  )
, ,      
       
  ,   ' -  
     ,        
 '     
󹰤󹰥󹰦󹰧󹰨   
1.       :     ,   
  
2.
2.      :       
    
3.   :            
󷶼󷶽󷶾󷷀󷶿 
1.   -    
"   "   
1831        
    ( 
)   
     ,      
2.  
 -   
-    (1852)
"   "   
      
      
       
3.    -  
"  "   
         
1860 ,    (  )     
   
 ,       II   (  
)
󼨻󼨼
 

1859
          
1860
        
1861
            II  
2.
1866
          
1870
-            
󷓠󷓡󷓢󷓣󷓤󷓥󷓨󷓩󷓪󷓫󷓦󷓧󷓬
1870         
   

󼨻󼨼 
 39         39   ,      
 :
 (, )
 ( )
, , , 
        ,    
  
      ,        
󹰤󹰥󹰦󹰧󹰨 
 
1.     :     
2.    :     
3.    - :          
  '  
4.   :  ,        
󷶼󷶽󷶾󷷀󷶿    
    (1862)
" "    
"  "     -        
 ,   
2.
󼨻󼨼
1.      (1864)
 +   
    ()
2. -  (1866)
       
          
     (  ) 
3. -  (1870-71)
     
          
  ,    -     
󷓠󷓡󷓢󷓣󷓤󷓥󷓨󷓩󷓪󷓫󷓦󷓧󷓬
 1871 ,   () ,       
     ()   
         
󼨐󼨑󼨒    


  
  
 
-
 
, , 

 +  + 
  
1870
󹴷󹴺󹴸󹴹󹴻󹴼󹴽󹴾󹴿󹵀󹵁󹵂 
2.
   : Il Canto degli Italiani (  )
     : 
  19
           
󷗭󷗨󷗩󷗪󷗫󷗬
     
     ,    
            ,    
   ,     '         

      :       -    
     

4.              
:    (WWI),           , 1914 
    1918            ,  
,             , 
 
    :
1.      -  
   
2.      -           ' 
 
          ,  
  

 
󷆫󷆪  
          ,        
     , -  '   ,    
                  
         ?        
!
   :
2.
1.   (      )
, , ,    ,         
 "  =  "    
󹸯󹸭󹸮1914 ,                 
         ,      
,     
 
2.  (      )
                
  - , -  
 - ,   
󹱑󹱒 :    '   ,       ,  
     
          
      
  
3.     (     )
              '  
 
󹱑󹱒 :    '  ,     '    
      
         
4.    (    )
  '               
 
  :
     
 "   "    
   - (1871  )    
2.
   ,       
5.  -       (28  1914)
    -   ,  ,  () 
          
   '           , ,
,        -     
󼨐󼨑󼨒  
󼿁󼿂󼿃󼿄󼿈󼿉󼿅󼿊󼿆󼿇 
 (  ):, , ,  (   ), 
(1917   )
 :, -,  , 
󹳦󹳤󹳧  
      , 1918      70  
,  10     
            
1.          
 10      20   
,         
, ,      
󹱑󹱒


2.  -
,        '   
     (   )
  ,     
2.
󹳦󹳤󹳧
3.     
       :
     
-  , , ,    
    ,        
  → 1917       
4.     
      :
, , , , ,   
󹳸󹳺󹳹

5.    (1919)
      '      '   '  
     
    ( 132    ) 
   
 100,000    
󹱑󹱒 
6.    
     , 1920        
:
    

2.
    
,        

           
7.     
      ,  ,       
   :
        
      
󹱊󹱋󹱌󹱍󹱎  , 30       1918     

8.   
     '    
 " " ( PTSD    ) 
   ,         
            
󼪺󼪻
        
       
, ,       ,       
     
           -     ,     
,              , 
        20   (  )   

2.
 -
5. 
        
:󼨐󼨑󼨒  
           
    ,  
    -    ,  
        ,
     ,      ,       
  ,      ,    
   -
         
  1991     
    " "     -      
  1991 ,          ,   

  (NEP)        ,     
   
󷆯󷆮


     
󹴮󹴯󹴰󹴱󹴲󹴳  
      1947  (  )      
,         -     ,   
,               
,   ,    44    (1991 ),     
 ,  ,       
1991    :
        
  15        
   
    
       
      '      
2.
󷗭󷗨󷗩󷗪󷗫󷗬

   :
1.      
2.     
3.      
4.       
󹴷󹴺󹴸󹴹󹴻󹴼󹴽󹴾󹴿󹵀󹵁󹵂

NEP    '   ,    LPG    :
󹻂 
         
1991   :
         (    
)
     ,    
    :
   '    
    
 ,  
󼪺󼪻 ,  
    -    10-15
      ,        ,
 ,           
󹻂
             
1991   :
      (      PSU 
 )
         
2.
   :
  PSUs        
,             
󹶯󹶲󹶳󹶰󹶱󹶴 : ,     BSNL  MTNL     
, ,             

󹻂
       
1991   :
          

        
   :
, , ,      
            
󷆫󷆪 ,       800     ,
,             
󹳨󹳤󹳩󹳪󹳫 
1.    
o    
o     
2.     
o   
o   
3.   
o    (  GST   )
4.    
o     
2.
o   
5.   
o    100% FDI    
󹸱󹸲󹸰
 
󷃆󼽢   
1.    
   1980    2-3%    2000    6-8%  
2.      
,           
3.   
 ,          

4.       
    ,       
5.     
,  ,   -          
󽅂   
1. -   
    ,      
2.      
   -    
 
3.    
 ,        
4.  
    '  
󹳦󹳤󹳧   
1991 ,       1.2   
2024 ,  $600    
2.
 1991  $2.4  FDI ;   $80    FDI
 
2007    GDP   9.3%    (    )
󹵲󹵳󹵴󹵵󹵶󹵷 
          ,   ,     
           
    
  ,    :
     ()
       ( )
    ()
       ,  
 ,    
  
       
󷙎󷙐󷙏
1991  
             ,
              
                
       , NEP      
 

6.            
: -:      
       200          
       ,    ,       
1868     
 ,    ,   ,      -  
 , ,  ,            ?
2.
          -     1868 
,              
    
󷫈󷫉󷫊   
1868  ,       ,        
      :
   
    
   
   (, , )
     
        ,     ,   
    
󷆖󷆗󷆙󷆚󷆛󷆜󷆘
1853 ,               
        
       
         
         
,   '   
   ,    '            
 ,           :   
          1868     
󷶼󷶽󷶾󷷀󷶿 
     "    "
1868 ,             
   -  , , , ,      
      ,  
      
    
2.
󺛟󺛠󺛡󺛢󺛣󺛤󺛥 
           -     , 
 
1.   :    

,       ()       :
    
     
     
1889      (   )
        (      )
 :,         ,    
         
2.  :   
          
 ,   :
,        
  - ,    
      
 (    )  
1900 ,    ,   ,        
  
: 1914 ,   11,400      ,     
 
3.   :       
,        - , , ,  
  :
2.
   
     (   )
          
     
 :       ,       
    -    
4.  :        
                
  :
    
     
   (    )   
      
:   1894-95    1904-05    -   
      
: -  (1905)  ,         
5.  :    
  ,   -   
 :
        
  (  )
    
     
 : 1870          
  1900 ,  
 ,  ,       
:1905 ,   90%         -   
2.
6.     
      :
 (   )
-  
 (     )
 ( , , )
   ,        -    , 
,   
          
󷆯󷆮    
1900      ,    :
    
     
 ,  
   - 
   
          -    
,  
   
󹴮󹴯󹴰󹴱󹴲󹴳
  1868             
 
       : , , ,  

           -   
 40  ,   , ,    
          
2.
-
7. 1929            
:   
1920     ,       
      ,        
   ,                
" "     - ,      ,  
 
 ,  ,       -  ,   
      ,     ,     
                
    ,   1929    
     ,     
󷈚󷈛 
  20
              
1929                 
 
    
;   ,         
   ,              
     - 1930     
󹳦󹳤󹳧 
       :
󹵅󹵆󹵇󹵈  
1929                ,
         , " ! 
  !"
 ,        
  -     
     ,       
      - 
          ,       
 
2.
24 , 1929 -        -     
              29
 ( ) ,      
                   
      ,  ,          -  
  
󷩳󷩯󷩰󷩱󷩲  
        :
1. 󹱩󹱪         
           
       
  ,     
 
2. 󷩳󷩯󷩰󷩱󷩲    
   9,000    
      
     
3. 󷪳󷪴󷪵󷪸󷪹󷪺󷪻󷪼󷪽󷪾󷪿󷪶󷪷   
           
 ,    ,    
        
4. 󹱼󹱽󹱿󹲀󹱾    
    ,     
         

    ,     
5. 󷆫󷆪    
    ,        
     '  
    ,     ' 
2.
󹺁󹺂  
       ,    :
1. 󷺚󷺛󷺜󷺝󷺞󷺟󷺠󷺡󷺢󷺣󷺤󸞞󸞟󸞠󸞡󸞢󸞣󸞤󸞥󸞦󸞧󸞨󸞩󷹔󷹕󷹖󷹗󷸢󷸣󷸤󷸥󷸦󷸧󷸨 󷸞󷸟󷸠󷸡󷸢󷸣󷸤󷸥󷸦󷸧󷸨   '  
 , 25%      
   60   
        
,    
  
2. 󷨏󷨐󷨑󷨒    
     
 "" (    ',     
 )       
  ,         
   

  
3. 󷍐󷍑󷍒󷍓󷍔󷍕󷍖󷍗󷍘󷍙󷍚󷍛󷍜󷍝󷍞󷍟󷍠󷍡   
      
          
4. 󹲟󹲠󹲡󹲢          
        
         ,     

5. 󺆾󺆽󺆿󺆅      
,     
      
6. 󺃺󺃻󺃼󺃽󺃾󺃿     
   ,         
       
    '      
2.
󷆫󷆪 
    :      30%     
   
:            
   :         
  (   ):       
 ,         
󷃆󹸊󹸋 
1.   -   (   .   )
1933   
    (  , ,  ) 
  
    
        
  -     
2.  
            
       (  ,   )   -
         
󼨐󼨑󼨒 
  : 29 , 1929 ( )
  : 1933  25%  
 :   9,000     
   15%   
2.
󼪺󼪻
1929         
 -    ,    
             -   
     

8.              
: 󷆫󷆪    ?
      ,    :
   (1939-1945)             
     70           '  
   :
  - , ,  , , , 
  - ,   
,      
         
󼨸󼨹󼨺 
  ,       :
󹴮󹴯󹴰󹴱󹴲󹴳  
1918         ,         
         ,   (  
)     ,    ,        

         ()     
     ,          
 ,      ,       ,  
      
        -    
1.    (1919) -  
2.
    ,          
'      
   13%   ,  33      
     ,      
  
?       
    
2.        - , ,   
 ,         
   
 ,     
 ,             
   
󷃆󽅕
󷃆󽅕
: 1933     ,         

3.   (1929) -   
1929 ,     (     ) 
    ,     
,               
        
   :
       ,         
        
4.     
    ,          
 
2.
       
,       

   1931   () '  ,     1935 
 '   -     

:       

5.   
      ,          

: 1938 ,         , 
   

  , "  
       ,    "
           
6.    -    (1939)
1 , 1939 ,       
           
 ,           
󷃆󽅕
󼽳󼽴󼽵󼽶󼽷 
  1945                
       '       
   
     
1.      
70      -    
, ,        
      60    
2.
:               
  -    
2.    (  )   - 1945
     
 ,  1945 ,          
    (UN)     
        
3.   
  ,        
 (1947),  (1945)            

:      70      
4.    (    )
  ,      :  () 
 ()
   ' 
        - ,   
   
  :      ,       
 
5.   
   (  )    (,
,   )    
    1961   -     
6.    
 (1949) -    
2.
  (1955) -    
        
7.       -   
  '           
       
󷃆󼽢
󹳴󹳵󹳶󹳷 
   
    
 
    
 
  
󹳴󹳵󹳶󹳷
   
   
    
 (  )
  
  (   )
   
"                  

          ,          